Survival Lottery Essay Example For Students

Survival Lottery Essay In his article The Survival Lottery, Harris suggests a situationwhere a possible course of action would be to kill a healthy person and use hisorgans for transplantation, thereby saving several lives at the cost of one. However the argument Harris presents, which he claims to be rational, doesintuitively raise a certain moral repugnance. The issues addressed such aswhether letting die is equivalent to killing, or is killing the innocent everjustified, are controversial in themselves and Harriss views have beenroundly criticised. This Essay will examine the main issues raised by thesurvival lottery and attempt to prove Harriss claim that it would be arational thing to do is in fact wrong. I will not do this by appealing to someobjective moral standard, such as we have a duty to never kill the innocent, asthis will inevitably lead to deadlock and lower the debate to a matter of yourown personal opinion. Instead I will argue that a Reductio ad Absurdum can belevelled against Harriss argument because of the untenable consequences itwould lead to. By revealing the weakness of the argument for the lottery we canshow why it shouldnt take place without being drawn into a conflict betweenconsequentialist and objectivist based ethical theories Harriss argument isbased on the maximising lives theory, as he believes there is valuein numbers and that two lives are twice as valuable as one. From this premise hegives the example in the survival lottery of two patients Mr. Y and Mr. Z whoare certain to die unless they get organ transplants, but no spare organs are tobe found. They both suggest that a healthy person, (Mr. A) be seized, killedpainlessly and his organs be used for the transplantation. They argue that thisis the rational and morally correct thing to do, for to not do so would besacrificing two lives to save one. It is the right course of action since itmaximises the number of lives saved albeit at the cost of a healthy and innocentperson. To combat the fear, worry and possible abuse by doctors of who should beseized and disorganised Mr. Y and Z suggest a lottery as a fair wayof determining who should be the donor. Mr Y and Z do have a strong case, theycan argue that they are just as innocent as Mr A, as its not their fault theyneed organ transplants. For the doctors to refuse to treat them is in effectdiscriminating against sick people. When we try to point out to them thatdoctors have a duty not to kill anyone, Mr Y and Z could claim that this isbegging the question as the doctors through there inaction will be killing bothof them. Perhaps this is where we can attack Harris, he equates killing withletting die for as a consequentialist it does not matter to him how the deathscome about, merely the fact that they have occurred is whats important. We will write a custom essay on Survival Lottery specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now However we could argue that by killing Mr. A we will have performed an ACTION,it will have been a man made death. On the other hand if we kill Mr. Y and Z we will have let nature take its course, no act has been done by anagent and can we be held responsible for things we dont do ? We could use theexample of starving children in Africa, if we dont always send aid to themare we responsible for killing them ? However this does not settle the question,we have merely provided an alternative viewpoint and on what basis can we saythis is more morally correct than Harriss view ? Maclean tries to side stepthis deadlock by arguing that the killing of Mr A is not moral question at all,in fact its morally impossible. Harris assumes that the organs forMr. Y and Z are available albeit at the death of an innocent person. Macleanstates that although the organs are physically available, they are not morallyavailable and if this is the case there should be no question of killing Mr A. .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 , .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .postImageUrl , .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 , .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242:hover , .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242:visited , .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242:active { border:0!important; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242:active , .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242 .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u35187fa9c9c2f8f3800fcd01d5994242:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Bill of rights EssayBy denying the availability of organs we can then say the doctors have no courseof action to take, Mr Y and Z cannot be saved and the question of whetherletting them die is tantamount to killing them does not even arise. However Idont believe this has resolved the conflict as it has simply provided anotherview of the value of human life. Maclean accuses Harris of operating ametaphysical notion of value whereon lives are rated as more or lessvaluable on some supposedly objective scale of values independently of whovalues them. This has the effect of degrading human beings to nothing morethan expendable units of organs and no longer seen as individuals. Harris of course would disagree saying his view, since it maximises the numberof human lives, it places more value on life. Both views can be rationallyjustified and the deadlock remains, the question is on what basis can we ruleone view to be moral the other immoral? I dont believe we can, but what wecan do is try to show that the rationality behind the argument for one of theviews is fallacious and if this is the case we can then reject that view. Thenext part of my Essay will reveal how Harriss case can be successfullyattacked and shown to have absurd consequences without having to appeal to somemetaphysical notion of the value of life, or an axiom such as the sanctity ofhuman life, thus breaking the deadlock doing so creates. To establish ourReductio ad Absurdum lets examine the premises Mr. Y and Zs argument relieson. Firstly they state that all three people in this situation, themselves andMr. A are all innocent. This is important as it removes any other considerationon who sho uld be killed other than the basis of numbers, so for the moment weare accepting the maximising principle so that we can show the absurdity itleads to. Mr Y and Z then in effect point a finger at Mr A andaccuse him of living at the cost of 2 lives. This is their reason for killinghim, the force from which they rationalise their course of action. But theabsurdity follows form this, Mr. Y and Z have no basis on which to pointthe finger at Mr A and level a 2 lives against 1 argument against him. Mr. A has every right to refute this by pointing the finger back at either Mr. Y orZ and saying you have no right to single me out, for I accept that if youkill me then 2 people will live, but if I where to kill either of you then 2people will also live. Myself for I will not have to be killed, and whicheverone of you I dont kill, cause we could use the others organs to save him. Since you claim we are all innocent, and your only argument against me is thatkilling me will save 2 lives, I have shown that you cant use this argumentagainst anyone without them reversing it back upon you. Thus Mr Y andZs argument is defeated their premise that killing 1 person to save 2 stillstands, but they cannot use it against a third party such as Mr A. Another formof this argument can take is that if we accept Mr Y and Zs premise that themore lives we save the better, then it would make sense for Mr A to kill aperson. For in doing so he would be saving 3 lives, his own and Mr Y and Zs. But just say this person before being killed by Mr A, said hold on aminute, lets kill this guy here, this way we will save 4 peoples lives, mine,yours Mr Y and Mr. Zs. This establishes a regress with each person whosabout to be killed using the same argument, and its difficult to see how toescape from it. In conclusion from these attacks we can proclaim the argumentfor the survival lottery as presented by Harris is fallacious and in theoryleads to absurdity. I have chosen not to mention the practical difficulties ofthe survival lottery such as which groups if any should be excluded from thedraw, as I have not needed to. .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f , .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .postImageUrl , .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f , .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f:hover , .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f:visited , .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f:active { border:0!important; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f:active , .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u10b4480ae416f2e1fe25614b5903e91f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Forensic Science: Proper Crime Scene Techniques. EssayBibliographyHarris, John The Survival lottery from Applied Ethics ed. PSinger (Oxford 1986) Maclean, Anne The elimination of Morality (London 1993 ) McKnight Chris J. The Survival of the Survival Lotteryin Journal of Applied Ethics Vol. 13 No.1 1996Philosophy

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IJM become grown in reputation and renown internationally in excellent ways of by achieving record by numerous awards. GAMUDA BERHAD Gamuda is a Construction , building and engineering like main project on highways, airport runways, highways, railways, tunnels, water treatment plants and dams, to infrastructure privation and the development of new townships and also it is a property and infrastructure company in Malaysia. The income statements and balance sheets of the two companies information that are required for business performance and it obtain the required information from the related company financial reports via internet . FORMULA Ratio with formula (Profitability of Company) IJM Corporation Berhad Gamuda Berhad Gross Profit markup (%) = ÃÆ'- 100 = 31.16% Gross profit = Sales Cost of the good RM2455143000 RM2032167000 = RM422976000 Cost of the good sales = RM1580125000 + RM363348000 + RM8595000 + RM19973000 + RM19260000 + RM40866000 = RM2032167000 ÃÆ'- 100 = 20.81% Gross profit margin (%) = ÃÆ'- 100 = 23.76% Net sales value = Sales Return inward RM2455143000 0 =RM 2455143000 ÃÆ'- 100 = 17.23% Operating profit margin on sales (%) = ÃÆ'-100 = 18.65% ÃÆ'- 100 = 10.58% Profit margin on sales (%) = ÃÆ'-100 = 8.29% ÃÆ'- 100 = 11.43% Basic earning power(BEP)= ÃÆ'- 100 Total assets = RM6959529000 + RM5598766000 = RM12558295000 = 5.96% Total assets = RM2347737000+RM4203173000 = RM6550910000 ÃÆ'- 100 = 3.97% Return on Total assets= ÃÆ'- 100 Total assets = RM6959529000 + RM5598766000 = RM12558295000 = 2.65% Total assets = RM2347737000+RM4203173000 = RM6550910000 ÃÆ'- 100 = 4.28% Return on common equity= ÃÆ'-100 = 6.48% ÃÆ'- 100 = 8.62% Ratio with Formula (Liquidity of Company) IJM Corporation Berhad Gamuda Berhad Current Ratio= = 2.09:1 = 2.18 : 1 Acid-test ratio= Liquid asset = Current asset -inventory RM5598760000 -RM 529320000 = RM5069446000 = 1.89:1 Liquid asset = Current asset-inventory RM4203173000 RM79738000 = 4123435000 RM4123435000 RM1930241000 = 2.14 : 1 Ratio with Formula ( Assets Management of Company) IJM Corporation Berhad Gamuda Berhad Inventory Turnover = or = 5.78 times = 25.49 times Total Assets Turnover= = 0.32 times = 0.37 times Debtor Ratio= = 0.54 : 1 = 0.65 : 1 Days sales outstanding= 0.54365days = 197.1days 0.65365days = 237.25days Ratio with Formula (Debts management of company) IJM Corporation Berhad Gamuda Berhad Debts ratio= Total Debts = Long time liabilities + current Liabilities = RM3303461000 +RM112250000 = RM3415711000 Total assets = Fix asset + Current asset RM3415711000 + RM2685225000 = RM6100936000 = 0.49 : 1 Total Debts = Long time liabilities + current Liabilities = RM1312946000 + RM1930241000 = RM3243187000 Total assets = Fix asset + Current asset RM2347737000 + RM4203173000 = RM6550910000 = 0.50 : 1 Debts equity ratio= = 1.19 : 1 = 1:1 Times interest earned or Interest cover= = 3.72 times = 5.93 times Ratio with Formula (Market value of investment to stockholder of company) IJM Corporation Berhad Gamuda Berhad Earnings per share= = = RM0.25 = RM0.14 Price earnings ratio= OR = 19.2 times = 22.86 times Earnings yield= = 100 / 75 X RM 0.25 RM0.48 = 6.94% = 5.83% Market price per book value ratio= = = = 1.24 : 1 = = 1.99 : 1 The Ratio Comparison between two companies for business performance measurement under each of the bold headings Profitability of the two companies: Gross profit markup and gross profit margin for the (Gamuda Berhad) is lower than (IJM Corporation Berhad) because the ineffective and inefficient in purchasing from supplier causing higher purchase cost, ineffective use of material and labor causing higher production cost to reduce gross profit earning. For operating profit margin on sales, (Gamuda Berhad) have a lower profit earned by company from the sales made for the ineffective control on expenditures and interest cost, incurring higher operating expenses and higher interest costs to reduce the profit earning but profit margin on sales, (Gamuda Berhad) have higher profit earned by company from the sales that is made for the effective control on its expenditures and interest costs, incurring lower operating expenses and lower interest costs to increase the profit earning than the second company. Liquidity of the two companies: The current ratio is first company is higher than second company because first company has larger amount of current assets can be used to finance its current liabilities and that will indicates the company is financially stable and able to finance its short-term liabilities. For acid-test ratio, first company is also higher than the second company is because that the first company has a larger amount of liquid assets that can be used to finance its current liabilities and the company has high liquidity to finance its short-term liabilities and financially stable. Asset Management of the two companies: The inventory turnover for the first company is higher than the second company because the first company has a fast stock turnover where the goods purchased and kept in the store are fast taken out for resale so that the stock is not accumulated and money is not tied up with the stock. For total assets turnover, the first company is also higher than the second company because first company has a higher sales generated from the assets for the effective use of assets in business activities to increase the production. Other than that, the debtor ratio and DSO, the first company is higher than the second company because the company has given longer credit time to allow debtors owing and causing longer time taken by the company to collect money slowly from debtors so that larger debtor balance is collected to tie up money and bringing it to shortage of money for paying back liabilities and facing short-term financial problem. Debts Management of the two companies: The debts ratio for the first company is higher than the second company because the first company has a heavy debts burden with larger amount of debts and bearing high interest cost. Company with heavy debts burden is risky for not able to finance or not able to pay back its debts or maybe it is being forced to dispose or to sell its assets for paying back the debts. But for debts equity ratio, the first company is lower than the second company because the second company has a light debts burden with smaller amount of debts and bearing low interest. And the times interest earned for the first company is higher than the second company because it has a bearing high interest charges in relation to its available profit. Market value of investment to stockholders: Earnings per share and earnings yield for the first company is lower than the second company, this indicates that the company has lower growth in business profit and resulting lower net income available to each unit share and being less attractive and lower value to the common stockholders. Due to lower earnings per share, stockholders or shareholders have to use more times of profit earning and more times of net cash inflow and longer period to recover back their share investment. This shows the confirmation by the price earnings ratio for the first company is being higher than the second company. Market price per book value for the first company is higher than the second company, this indicates that the company share price has inequitably risen up above its real asset value or book value and being not realistic to stockholders. Conclusion In my conclusion, the first company Gamuda Berhads performance is better than the IJM corporation Berhad, and this indicated (Gamuda Berhad) has better performance, because first company has a higher rate in the 5 aspect of business that measured by accounting ratio. In information problems, the base information is out of date and analysis of accounting information, and they will only identify symptoms but not the causes and this will make the company to have information problems. For inter-firm problems, every companies have to select their industry norms and the usefulness of norms based on the averages and different company have different business and financial problems and the impact on analysis. so in this matter they have theur own way to solve their problems. QUESTION 2 Identify and discuss three different ways for transferring capital or fund from savers to borrowers in the financial market. ANSWER QUESTION 2 INTRODUCTION Financial market means it is a organization and people who be found to borrow money from those having some valuable metals to be exchanged at efficient by market price and also they refer to the stock market, wall street, even markets. In this field there are many different kind of financial market each market use different kind of matted, terms, types of parts of country and customer and the asset banking. By the ending from the any type of this helps them in business grown big and investors make money and give them a lot of profit. At the same time the trading of the stock and bonds that they get in financial market take place direct between buys and sellers and also financial market can be a good relationship by domestic or international business level in communication. There are many various of types in financial market that is physical asset markets to deal with the tangible, real and physical products such as computer, machinery, real estate and other assets the financial market deal with different types of instruments such as stocks or shares, bonds, notes, mortgagees and other claims or real assets with derivative securities whose values derived from changes in the price of other assets. Spot market refer to deals being bought or sold for on the delivery within a few days where future market refers future market deals bought or sold future delivery at some future date such six months or a year in to the future. There are some major financial markets like money markets who deals asset in short term and highly liquid debt securities in borrowing and lending with original maturities in a short periods between less than one year for example it involves like certificate of deposit, federal funds and asset-backed securities. Capital markets is who deals for securities where companies and governments can intermediate or long-term debts in a periods of one year or more than one years and also it include stock market. Montage market is a market who deals with loans on residential, commercial, industrial real estate and farmland and the federal government has confirmed that a major economic role in the mortgage loan market because real estate development is a major sector of the U.S. Economy. Consumer credit market is markets that deals with loans and autos and appliances, as well as loans for education and vacations and provide good services. Primary markets is an market which is corporations raise capital by issuing new securities or new shares like governments or public sector institutions can obtain funding the sale of a new market issue. A secondary market which is the existing and already outstanding securities or financial assets are traded among investors after they have been issued by the corporations and also called as aftermarket where have been issued securities and instruments such are bought and sold. Initial public offering (IOP) market that is firm by offering securities to the public for the first time and often often issued by smaller, younger companies seeking to expand, but can also be done by large private companies looking to become publicly traded. Private market is all about transactions that worked privately and directly between two parties without going to public by independently and also they called breakup value market. There are three different ways of transferring capital or funds from savers to borrowers in financial markets and they are following picture: TRANSFER OF CAPITAL OR FUND BETWEEN SAVERS ( MONEY LENDRE ) AND THOSE WHO NEED CAPITAL OR FUND ( BORROWERS ) 1. Direct transfer from savers to borrowers: When a corporation take place in issues and sells stocks or bonds strata way to saver without giving any financial institution so the corporation as borrower will delivers securities to savers who in turn give money to the corporation and the capital directly transfersed from savers to corporation (borrower). Business Corporation Issue corporations securities to Savers (Borrower) Receive capital or funds from (Money lender) 2. Indirect transfer from savers to borrowers though investment banking house: Investment bank is a unwritten the issues of corporations securities as a middlemen to the facilitate the issues by purchase and then resell the same corporation so that the money paid by savers for purchase. The investment bank receive money merely pass thought banking house. Issue corporations Resell corporations Securities to securities to Business Investment Savers Corporation Banking (money (Borrower) House Lender) Receive fund from Receive fund from 3. Indirect intermediately such as a bank or mutual funds from saver by issuing securities or certificate of deposit to savers. Than it used the fund collected to purchase and hold the securities as investment and the funds transferred from saver intermediary when pay money to financially exchange for receiving certificate of deposit . future than that this fund to other corporation paying money out of fun because they are safer and more liquid them mortgage and loans. Issue Corporations Issue intermediarys Securities to Securities to Business Financial Savers Corporation (Money (borrower) Intermediary Lender) Receive fund from Receive fund from Investment Banking House Can be say that organization that underwrites and distributes the upcoming new issue of latest business corporations securities to assist corporation that is fund for financial. For example, a businessperson who produces shoes may purchase a machine that automatically stitches leather that hopes in the time saved will allow for the production of more shoes and increased sales or another example investment banking house are Merrill Lynch and Morgan Stanley Dean Witter. Financial Intermediaries There are some specialized in financial firm that transfer of funds from savers to be demanders of capital or event borrower. The financial intermediaries generally huge and they gain in economies of scale in analyzing the creditworthiness of potential borrower, in processing and collecting loans, and in pooling risk and for the helping individual savers to diversity their funds investments. Following are major financial intermediaries Commercial bank is a financial intermediary which collects credit from lenders in the form of deposits and lends in the form of loans holds deposits for individuals and businesses in the form of checking and savings accounts and certificates of deposit of varying maturities while a issues loans in the form of personal and business loans as well as mortgages and also they handled checking accounts and thought which is Federal Reserve System expended or contracted the money supply. They also provides an ever-widening service, stock brokerage service and insurance and they are different from investment bank they lend out money to borrows and investment banks assist business corporation to raise capital or fund from savers. Saving and loan association is a specializes in accepting savings deposits and making mortgage and other loan like collect funds from many small savers and lend out the money to house buyers and other kind of borrowers and it more significant economic function of the saving and loan association to create liquidity in capital markets. Mutual saving funds is a savings that has no stockholders and reinvests all profits in itself and the savings banks are owned their depositors and borrowers because there are no stockholders to please, mutual savings banks are often very conservative with how they invest deposits. Credit unions is a non-profit financial institution that owned and operated entirely by members and also it provide financial services for their members, including savings and lending. In large organizations and companies may organize credit unions for their members and employees, respectively. They are often the chepast source of funds available to individual to borrowers. Pension funds is a retirement plans funded by corporation or government agencies for their workers and administered by trust departments of commercial banks or by life insurance companies. It also a funds invest primarily in bonds, stocks, mortgages and real estate. Life insurance companies is a collect saving that form or annual premiums and invest in stocks, bonds, real estate and montage, finally make payments to the beneficiaries of the insured parties. It also have many kind of tax deferred saving plans to provide benefits to the participants when they retire. Mutual funds collect money from savers and use to buy stocks, long-term bonds and short-term debt instruments that issued by government or business units and thus reduce risk by investment diversification, achieve economies of scale in analyzing securities, managing portfolios, buy and selling securities. They also designed to meet objective in different types of savers and they used as interest bearing checking account such as money market funds.

Analysis Of Crito :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Analysis of Crito   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The question is raised within the dialogue between Socrates and Crito concerning civil disobedience. Crito has the desire, the means, and many compelling reasons with which he tries to convince the condemned to acquiesce in the plan to avoid his imminent death. Though Crito's temptation is imposing, it is in accord with reason and fidelity that Socrates chooses to fulfill his obligation to the state, even to death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before addressing Crito's claims which exhort Socrates to leave the state and avoid immanent death, the condemned lays a solid foundation upon which he asserts his obligation to abide by the laws. The foundation is composed of public opinion, doing wrong, and fulfillment of one's obligations. Addressing public opinion, Socrates boldly asserts that it is more important to follow the advice of the wise and live well than to abide by the indiscriminate and capricious public opinion and live poorly. Even when it is the public who may put one to death, their favor need not be sought, for it is better to live well than to submit to their opinion and live poorly. Next, wrongful doing is dispatched of. They both consent to the idea that, under no circumstances, may one do a wrong, even in retaliation, nor may one do an injury; doing the latter is the same as wrong doing. The last foundation to be questioned is the fulfillment of one's obligations. Both of the philosophers affirm that, provided that the conditions one consents to are legitimate, one is compelled to fulfill those covenants. These each are founded upon right reasoning and do provide a justifiable foundation to discredit any design of dissent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At line fifty, Socrates executes these foundations to destroy and make untenable the petition that he may rightfully dissent: Then consider the logical consequence. If we leave this place without first persuading the state to let us go, are we or are we not doing an injury, and doing it in a quarter where it is least justifiable? Are we or are we not abiding by our just agreements?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To criticize or reproach Socrates' decision to accept his punishment is unjustifiable in most of the arguments. Analysis Of Crito :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays Analysis of Crito   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The question is raised within the dialogue between Socrates and Crito concerning civil disobedience. Crito has the desire, the means, and many compelling reasons with which he tries to convince the condemned to acquiesce in the plan to avoid his imminent death. Though Crito's temptation is imposing, it is in accord with reason and fidelity that Socrates chooses to fulfill his obligation to the state, even to death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before addressing Crito's claims which exhort Socrates to leave the state and avoid immanent death, the condemned lays a solid foundation upon which he asserts his obligation to abide by the laws. The foundation is composed of public opinion, doing wrong, and fulfillment of one's obligations. Addressing public opinion, Socrates boldly asserts that it is more important to follow the advice of the wise and live well than to abide by the indiscriminate and capricious public opinion and live poorly. Even when it is the public who may put one to death, their favor need not be sought, for it is better to live well than to submit to their opinion and live poorly. Next, wrongful doing is dispatched of. They both consent to the idea that, under no circumstances, may one do a wrong, even in retaliation, nor may one do an injury; doing the latter is the same as wrong doing. The last foundation to be questioned is the fulfillment of one's obligations. Both of the philosophers affirm that, provided that the conditions one consents to are legitimate, one is compelled to fulfill those covenants. These each are founded upon right reasoning and do provide a justifiable foundation to discredit any design of dissent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At line fifty, Socrates executes these foundations to destroy and make untenable the petition that he may rightfully dissent: Then consider the logical consequence. If we leave this place without first persuading the state to let us go, are we or are we not doing an injury, and doing it in a quarter where it is least justifiable? Are we or are we not abiding by our just agreements?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To criticize or reproach Socrates' decision to accept his punishment is unjustifiable in most of the arguments.

Grammatical aspect Essay

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind. Examples: †¢ I saw a movie yesterday. †¢ I didn’t see a play yesterday. †¢ Last year, I traveled to Japan. †¢ Last year, I didn’t travel to Korea. †¢ Did you have dinner last night? †¢ She washed her car. †¢ He didn’t wash his car. USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions [pic] We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on. Examples: †¢ I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim. †¢ He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00. †¢ Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs? USE 3 Duration in Past [pic] The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc. Examples: †¢ I lived in Brazil for two years. †¢ Shauna studied Japanese for five years. †¢ They sat at the beach all day. †¢ They did not stay at the party the entire time. †¢ We talked on the phone for thirty minutes. †¢ A: How long did you wait for them? B: We waited for one hour. USE 4 Habits in the Past [pic] The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as â€Å"used to. † To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc. Examples: †¢ I studied French when I was a child. †¢ He played the violin. †¢ He didn’t play the piano. †¢ Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid? †¢ She worked at the movie theater after school. †¢ They never went to school, they always skipped class. USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations [pic] The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression â€Å"used to. † Examples: †¢ She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing. †¢ He didn’t like tomatoes before. †¢ Did you live in Texas when you were a kid? †¢ People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past. IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First. Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word â€Å"when† such as â€Å"when I dropped my pen†¦ † or â€Å"when class began†¦ † These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses. Examples: †¢ When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question. †¢ She answered my question when I paid her one dollar. When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether â€Å"when I paid her one dollar† is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar. Example: †¢ I paid her one dollar when she answered my question. ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: †¢ You just called Debbie. †¢ Did you just call Debbie? Past Continuous FORM [was/were + present participle] Examples: †¢ You were studying when she called. †¢ Were you studying when she called? †¢ You were not studying when she called. Complete List of Past Continuous Forms USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past [pic] Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time. Examples: †¢ I was watching TV when she called. †¢ When the phone rang, she was writing a letter. †¢ While we were having the picnic, it started to rain. †¢ What were you doing when the earthquake started? †¢ I was listening to my iPod, so I didn’t hear the fire alarm. †¢ You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off. †¢ While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car. †¢ Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane. †¢ While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off. †¢ A: What were you doing when you broke your leg? B: I was snowboarding. USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption [pic] In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption. Examples: †¢ Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner. †¢ At midnight, we were still driving through the desert. †¢ Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work. IMPORTANT In the Simple Past, a specific time is used to show when an action began or finished. In the Past Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action. Examples: †¢ Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner. I started eating at 6 PM. †¢ Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner. I started earlier; and at 6 PM, I was in the process of eating dinner. USE 3 Parallel Actions [pic] When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Examples: †¢ I was studying while he was making dinner. †¢ While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television. †¢ Were you listening while he was talking? †¢ I wasn’t paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes. †¢ What were you doing while you were waiting? †¢ Thomas wasn’t working, and I wasn’t working either. †¢ They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time. USE 4 Atmosphere In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past. Example: †¢ When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service. USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with â€Å"Always† [pic] The Past Continuous with words such as â€Å"always† or â€Å"constantly† expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression â€Å"used to† but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words â€Å"always† or â€Å"constantly† between â€Å"be† and â€Å"verb+ing. † Examples: †¢ She was always coming to class late. †¢ He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone. †¢ I didn’t like them because they were always complaining. While vs. When Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word â€Å"when† such as â€Å"when she called† or â€Å"when it bit me. † Other clauses begin with â€Å"while† such as â€Å"while she was sleeping† and â€Å"while he was surfing. † When you talk about things in the past, â€Å"when† is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas â€Å"while† is usually followed by Past Continuous. â€Å"While† expresses the idea of â€Å"during that time. † Study the examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence. Examples: †¢ I was studying when she called. †¢ While I was studying, she called. REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past. Examples: †¢ Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct †¢ Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: †¢ You were just studying when she called. †¢ Were you just studying when she called? ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples: †¢ The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. Active †¢ The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. Passive Past Perfect FORM [had + past participle] Examples: †¢ You had studied English before you moved to New York. †¢ Had you studied English before you moved to New York? †¢ You had not studied English before you moved to New York. Complete List of Past Perfect Forms USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past [pic] The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past. Examples: †¢ I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai. †¢ I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet. †¢ Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times. †¢ Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand? †¢ She only understood the movie because she had read the book. †¢ Kristine had never been to an opera before last night. †¢ We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance. †¢ A: Had you ever visited the U. S. before your trip in 2006? B: Yes, I had been to the U. S. once before. USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs) [pic] With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past. Examples: †¢ We had had that car for ten years before it broke down. †¢ By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years. †¢ They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years. Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words â€Å"live,† â€Å"work,† â€Å"teach,† and â€Å"study† are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs. IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect [pic]. Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary. Example: †¢ She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996. MOREOVER If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when â€Å"before† or â€Å"after† is used in the sentence. The words â€Å"before† and â€Å"after† actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct. Examples: †¢ She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996. †¢ She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996. HOWEVER [pic] If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used. Examples: †¢ She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct †¢ She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: †¢ You had previously studied English before you moved to New York. †¢ Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York? ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples: †¢ George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic’s license. Active †¢ Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic’s license. Passive Past Perfect Continuous FORM [had been + present participle] Examples: †¢ You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived. †¢ Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived? †¢ You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived. Complete List of Past Perfect Continuous Forms USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past [pic] We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. â€Å"For five minutes† and â€Å"for two weeks† are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past. Examples: †¢ They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived. †¢ She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business. †¢ How long had you been waiting to get on the bus? †¢ Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work. †¢ James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia. †¢ A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara? B: I had not been studying Turkish very long. USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past [pic] Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect. Examples: †¢ Jason was tired because he had been jogging. †¢ Sam gained weight because he had been overeating. †¢ Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class. Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous If you do not include a duration such as â€Å"for five minutes,† â€Å"for two weeks† or â€Å"since Friday,† many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past. Study the examples below to understand the difference. Examples: †¢ He was tired because he was exercising so hard. This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he was exercising at that exact moment. †¢ He was tired because he had been exercising so hard. This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been exercising over a period of time. It is possible that he was still exercising at that moment OR that he had just finished. REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect. Examples: †¢ The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it. Not Correct †¢ The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT. The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: †¢ You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived. †¢ Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived? ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples: †¢ Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant’s fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. Active †¢ The restaurant’s fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris. Passive NOTE: Passive forms of the Past Perfect Continuous are not common.

Logic and George Boole essays

Logic and George Boole essays The meaning of logic is likely one of the most philosophical ideas on which to write about. Logic and creativity are opposite ideas. Logic represents the prime value of creativity. Logic is the inverse of creativity. I have discovered that creativity is not equal to logic in terms of its power to change our existence. Creativity is the compliment of logic. Only when logic has been proved can any creativity spring forth. Creativity is merely applied logic. Logic is a science that deals with the principles and the validity of inference. Logic is the sequence of facts or events when seen as inevitable or predictable. Although it is true that the creative geniuses are likely admired, their contributions to society are not as life changing...unless applied to science. Li-Fang Zhang wrote an investigational article called Thinking Styles and Modes of Thinking: Implications and Research. He claimed that a major finding was that creativity generating complex thinking styles were not significantly positively correlated with the holistic mode of thinking but significantly correlated with the analytical mode of thinking. He puts his defined thinking styles in two categories. The first is creativity (including liberal styles) and the second is the logical (including conservative styles) He thinks that the logical thinker requires simplistic information processing. The founder of symbolic logic, George Boole is rightly regarded as one of the founding fathers of computing and information technology. The term Boolean value was named after George Boole. Computer Programmers use this Boolean value to hard code validity checks into a computer system to protect the integrity of data. Computer science engineers use the Boolean value to create switches and circuits. In fact, the language of computers is the digital, binary code. Binary code is represented as 0 meaning off a...

A Timeline of the History of Alcohol

A Timeline of the History of Alcohol The history of alcohol and humans is at least 30,000 and arguably 100,000 years long. Alcohol, a flammable liquid produced by the natural fermentation of sugars, is currently the most widely used human psychoactive agent around the world today, ahead of nicotine, caffeine, and betel nut. It was made and consumed by prehistoric societies in six of the seven continents (not Antarctica), in a variety of forms based on a variety of natural sugars found in grains and fruits.   Alcohol Timeline: Consumption The earliest possible moment that humans consumed alcohol is conjecture. The creation of alcohol is a natural process, and scholars have noted that primates, insects, and birds partake in (accidentally) fermented berries and fruit. While there is no direct evidence that our ancient ancestors also drank fermented liquids, it is a possibility we should consider. 100,000 years ago (theoretically): At some point, Paleolithic humans or their ancestors recognized that leaving fruit in the bottom of a container for an extended period of time leads naturally to alcohol-infused juices. 30,000 BCE: Some scholars interpret the abstract parts of Upper Paleolithic cave art as the work of shamans, religious specialists who were attempting to connect with natural forces and supernatural beings. Shamans work under altered states of consciousness (ASC), which can be created by chanting or fasting or aided by pyschotropic drugs, like alcohol. Some of the earliest cave paintings suggest activities of shamans; some scholars have suggested they reached ASC using alcohol. Laussel Venus, Upper Paleolithic Bas-Relief, Aquitaine Museum, Bordeaux, France. Apic / Hulton Archive / Getty Images 25,000 BCE: The Venus of Laussel, found in a French Upper Paleolithic cave, is a carved representation of a woman holding what looks like a cornucopia or a bison horn core. Some scholars have interpreted it as a drinking horn. 13,000 BCE: To intentionally make fermented beverages, one needs a container where they may be stored during the process, and the first pottery was invented in China at least 15,000 years ago. 10,000 BCE: Grape pips attest to possible wine consumption at Franchthi Cave in Greece. 9th millennium BCE: The earliest domesticated fruit was the fig tree, 8th millennium BCE: The domestication of rice and barley, crops used for the production of fermented alcohol, occurred about 10,000 years ago. Production Alcoholic substances have intoxicating, mind-altering properties that might have been restricted to elites and religious specialists, but they were also used in the maintenance of social cohesion in the context of feasting available to everyone in a community.  Some herb-based beverages may have been used for medicinal purposes as well. 7000 BCE: The earliest evidence of wine production comes from jars at the Neolithic site of Jiahu in China, where residue analysis has identified a fermented concoction of rice, honey and fruit. 5400–5000 BCE: Based on the recovery of tartaric acid in ceramic vessels, people produced resinated wine, such as that on a fairly large scale at Hajji Firuz Tepe, Iran. 4400–4000 BCE: Grape pips, empty grape skins, and two-handled cups at the Greek site of Dikili Tash are the earliest evidence for wine production in the Aegean Sea region. 4000 BCE: A platform for crushing grapes and a process to move crushed grapes to storage jars are evidence of wine production at the Armenian site of Areni-1. Ubaid Pottery from Susa, Iran, 4th millennium BCE, Musà ©e National de Cà ©ramique, Sà ªvres, France. Siren-Com 4th millennium BCE: By the beginning of the 4th millennium BCE, wine and beer were produced in many locations in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Anatolia (such as the Ubaid site of Tepe Gawra) and treated as a trade and elite luxury good. At the same time, Predynastic Egyptian tomb paintings and wine jars are evidence of the local production of herb-based beers. 3400–2500  BCE: The predynastic community of Hierankopolis in Egypt had a large number of barley- and wheat-based brewery installations. Alcohol as a Trade Good It is difficult to draw the line globally for the production of wine and beer explicitly for trade. It seems clear that alcohol was both an elite substance and one with ritual significance, and the liquids as well as the technology of making them was shared and traded across cultures fairly early on. 3150 BCE: One of the rooms of the tomb of Scorpion I, the earliest of the dynastic kings of Egypt, was stuffed with 700 jars believed to have been made and filled with wine in the Levant and shipped to the king for his consumption. 3300–1200 BCE: Wine consumption is in evidence, used in ritual and elite contexts in Early Bronze Age sites in Greece, including both Minoan and ​Mycenaean cultures. Fu Yi Gong wine vessel from the Late Shang Dynasty (13th–11th century BCE) at the Shanghai Museum, China. Tim Graham / Getty Images 1600–722 BCE: Cereal based alcohol are stored in sealed bronze vessels of Shang (ca. 1600-1046 BCE), and Western Zhou (ca. 1046-722 BCE) dynasties in China. 2000–1400 BCE: Textual evidence demonstrates that barley and rice beers, and others made from a variety of grasses, fruits and other substances, were produced in the Indian subcontinent at least as long ago as the Vedic period. 1700–1550 BC: Beer based on the locally domesticated sorghum grain is manufactured and becomes ritually important in the Kerma dynasty of the Kushite kingdom of present-day Sudan. 9th century BCE: Chicha beer, made from a combination of maize and fruit, is a significant part of feasting and status differentiation throughout South America.   8th century BCE: In his classic tales The Iliad and The Odyssey, Homer prominently mentions the wine of Pramnos. When [Circe] had got [the Argonauts] into her house, she set them upon benches and seats and mixed them a mess with cheese, honey, meal, and Pramnian wine, but she drugged it with wicked poisons to make them forget their homes, and when they had drunk she turned them into pigs by a stroke of her wand and shut them up in her pig-sties. Homer, The Odyssey, Book X 8th–5th centuries BCE: The Etruscans produce the first wines in Italy; according to Pliny the Elder, they practice wine blending and create a muscatel type beverage. 600 BCE: Marseilles is founded by the Greeks who brought wines and vines to the great port city in France.   Iron and Gold Drinking Horn of the Celtic Chieftain at Hochdorf, on display at Kunst der Kelten, Historisches Museum Bern. Rosemania 530–400 BCE: Grain beers and mead produced in central Europe, such as barley beer at Iron Age Hochdorf in what is today Germany. 500–400 BCE: Some scholars, such as F.R. Alchin, believe that the first distillation of alcohol might have occurred as early as this period in India and Pakistan. 425–400 BCE: Wine production at the Mediterranean port of Lattara in southern France marks the beginning of the wine industry in France. 4th century BCE: The Roman colony and competitor of Carthage in North Africa has an extensive trade network of wine (and other goods) all over the Mediterranean region, including a sweet wine made from sun-dried grapes.   4th century BCE: According to Plato, strict laws in Carthage forbid the drinking of wine for magistrates, jury members, councilors, soldiers, and ships pilots while on duty, and for slaves at any time.   Widespread Commercial Production The empires of Greece and Rome are largely responsible for the international commercialization of the trade in many different goods, and specifically in the production of alcoholic beverages. 1st–2nd centuries BCE: The Mediterranean wine trade explodes, bolstered by the Roman empire. 150 BCE–350 CE: Distillation of alcohol is a common practice in in northwest Pakistan.   92 CE: Domitian forbids the planting of new vineyards in the provinces because the competition is killing the Italian market. Roman pavement mosaic depicting the god Bacchus at the Genazzano Villa in Rome, Antonine dynasty, 138–193 CE.   Werner Forman / Archive/Heritage Images / Getty Images 2nd century CE: Romans begin cultivating grapes and producing wine in Mosel valley of Germany and France becomes a major wine-producing region. 4th century CE: The process of distillation is (possibly re-)developed in Egypt and Arabia. 150 BCE–650 CE: Pulque, made from fermented agave, is used as a dietary supplement at the Mexican capital city of Teotihuacan. 300–800 CE: At Classic period Maya feasts, participants consume balche (made from honey and bark) and chicha (maize-based beer).   500–1000 CE: Chicha beer becomes a significant element of feasting for the Tiwanaku in South America, evidenced in part by the classic kero form of flared drinking goblet.   13th century CE: Pulque, an alcoholic beverage made from fermented agave, is part of the Aztec state in Mexico. 16th century CE: Production of wine in Europe moves from monasteries to merchants. Selected Sources Anderson, Peter. Global Use of Alcohol, Drugs . Drug 25.6 (2006): 489–502. Print.and andTobacco Alcohol ReviewDietler, Michael. Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology 35.1 (2006): 229–49. Print.McGovern, Patrick E. Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Beer, Wine and Other Alcoholic Beverages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009. Print.McGovern, Patrick E., Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, eds. The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2005. Print.McGovern, Patrick E., et al. Fermented Beverages of Pre- and Proto-Historic China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101.51 (2004): 17593–98. Print.Meussdoerffer, Franz G. A Comprehensive History of Beer Brewing. Handbook of Brewing. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA, 2009. 1–42. Print.Stika, Hans-Peter. Beer in Prehistoric Europe. Liquid Bread: Beer and Brewi ng in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Eds. Schiefenhovel, Wulf and Helen Macbeth. Vol. 7. The Anthropology of Food and Nutrition. New York: Berghahn Books, 2011. 55–62. Print. Surico, Giuseppe. The Grapevine and Wine Production through the Ages. Phytopathologia Mediterranea 39.1 (2000): 3–10. Print.

Is it political culture, social cleavages or inherited institutions Essay

Is it political culture, social cleavages or inherited institutions that has the most significant influence on the current problems facing the consolidation of - Essay Example The repercussions f the Russian and Asian financial crises, together with the apparent fraying f Cardoso's governing coalition and a unilateral moratorium on federal debts declared by some states, exposed the fiscal and political fragility f Cardoso's policy agenda. Brazil's ability to recover quickly from the global economic shocks and Cardoso's success in winning legislative assent on major structural reforms as f May 2000 reveal as much his political skill as the many overlooked strengths and growing versatility f the Brazilian political system. The discussions in the texts to be reviewed here place in crisper perspective the political and institutional conundrum facing Cardoso's administration. The seven books share many features. Each in its own way addresses critical political and institutional issues facing Brazil today. For most f these analysts, the central question is, why has Brazil's new democracy performed so poorly in terms f redistributive reforms and democratic governance Why has the return to democracy resulted in neither good governance nor improvements in the country's profound social deficit While the authors have their own distinctive approaches and ways f framing f the central problem, this review will focus mainly on the themes f democratic governance and social welfare. As a group, the works under review here reveal four shortcomings. First, they understate the achievements f democracy in Brazil. This assessment stems in part from mostly normative hidden assumptions about an ideal type f democracy, in c omparison with which the performance f Brazilian democracy falls short. Second, these authors perceive more continuities than breaks in Brazilian political development, with corrosive practices and institutions f the past remaining intact--or even strengthened-following the transition to democracy. Third, they underestimate the capacity f the three key political institutions in Brazil--the parties, the legislature, and the executive or generalize about their hypothesized weakness. This problem is especially egregious in the analysis by Ronald Schneider, who describes the Brazilian party system as "primitive" and blames the "dysfunctional public sector" as the root cause f the country's economic and political crises. But the problem is equally visible in the books by Souza, Weyland, and Hagopian. Despite a growing body f research showing otherwise, (Martins 78-93) several f the texts reviewed here illustrate how works on Brazilian party systems and legislative-executive relations con tinue to be dominated by outdated, impressionistic, and overdrawn arguments and evidence. The first signs f a modern democratic government in Brazil appeared in 1945 when the military deposed President Getlio Vargas. Vargas had created a "semi-corporatist authoritarian regime (the Estado Nvo) based largely on the military." Once Vargas had been removed from power, Brazil instituted a competitive multi-party system. Multi-party systems are not a requirement for democracy, "but certainly the history f democratization has been associated with the development f parties and their legitimation." This step towards a true democratic government was negated in 1964 when the military forced a reversion to an authoritarian form f rule. The president remained the top government official, but he was

Final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Final - Essay Example Democrats were of the opinion that there should be a proper democracy everywhere in US, rather than a division amongst tribes and their rule at various places. So US is bound to expand and to spread democracy everywhere across the continent. That would be very natural for Americans and would be in very much favor of country. During those times, every American was full of nationalism spirit and wanted the country to prosper more and more by acquiring other areas of the continent. This air of rather a selfish kind of nationalism was very much in air particularly after freedom war in 1812. There were many aspects behind this motivation. Religious sector was in favor of making the Indian tribes Christian so that the Christian population becomes more and the souls get satisfaction. They say that God wanted all these things to happen with US. The economic factors were also present as the trade would grow more so there had been the greed for making great entrepreneurs. So overall, there had been a great importance of the concept of Manifest destiny in US history (manifest dynasty. 2011 ). Returning to the discussion that is this concept divides us or unite us, we must keep in mind that Manifest destiny contains the concept of superiority of American over other races or people of color. There was also the concept of cultural superiority that Hispanic people and the native tribes are backward and are not able to move in the world on their own behalf. It’s the people of Texas who represent US in the whole world so they should be the ones who rule over it, alone. This concept eventually caused a lot of slavery in the area after the Mexico war particularly, when many locals were made slaves and were treated badly. This racism and color bias is still present in our society in other forms. Today, most white people consider themselves superior than people of any other race in comparison of culture, social